This policy brief explores the challenges faced by regulators when working to facilitate improvements in online safety across numerous small but high-risk platforms and emerging technologies. It includes an introduction to the threat landscape on these platforms and services, with a particular focus on illegal harms such as terrorism, violent extremism and illegal hate speech, while also recognising the potential presence of other serious illegal harms such as child sexual abuse material (CSAM).

It also includes an assessment of key gaps in effective responses to these threats by regulators, policymakers, law enforcement, civil society and companies themselves. It considers key online safety regulations adopted in recent years, particularly the UK Online Safety Act (OSA) and the EU’s Digital Services Act (DSA) and Terrorist Content Online Regulation (TCO). Australia’s Online Safety Act (OSA) is also considered.